Born a king, dead at 21: The brief, tragic life of Napoleon II

Episode 224 — History. Napoleon II

Heir to Napoleon I, styled 'King of Rome'

Seemed to hold every fortune in his hands

After his father's fall, caged in a foreign court

His name changed, his father denied to him

He died young, never reclaiming past glory

'My birth, my death — that is all there is'

Thomas Lawrence, Napoleon II (detail), 1818–1819, oil on canvas, 57.8x48.6cm, Fogg Art Museum [harvardartmuseums.org, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Editor's note

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The birth of the 'King of Rome'

François Gérard, King of Rome (Napoleon II), 1812, oil on canvas, 60x49cm, Palace of Versailles [Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

The emperor lifted the infant like a trophy.

Below the dais, the crowd roared as one: "Long live His Royal Highness, the King of Rome!" The newborn hailed from birth as the King of Rome bore the name Napoleon François Charles Joseph Bonaparte — later known to history as Napoleon II, the sole legitimate heir to the First French Empire. And the father who held him aloft with such undisguised pride? None other than Napoleon I, a man of towering fame and equally towering infamy. On June 9, 1811, a baptismal ceremony for Napoleon II was held at Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, drawing not only the emperor's inner circle but nobles and commoners packed shoulder to shoulder.

Napoleon I's decision to hoist the infant so conspicuously was itself a breach of ceremony. On baptism days, custom dictated that even parents — even emperors — observe the order of proceedings with decorum. But this was Napoleon I. Seven years earlier, at his own coronation, he had snatched the crown from the pope's hands and placed it on his own head. He had brushed aside convention and tradition then, and he did so again now, displaying the same arrogance that bordered on supreme self-confidence.

The baptism was beautiful and impressive.

The emperor ( ... ) lifted the child twice high above his head to show him to the crowd ( ... )

and his face and bearing showed great satisfaction.

So wrote Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, the Austrian ambassador to France at the time.

There was also a political dimension to Napoleon I's decision to break with long-standing ritual.

Look well, all of you. Remember the sovereign you shall serve after me. It was a wordless declaration — a silent communication of intent.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Napoleon on His Imperial Throne, 1806, oil on canvas, 259x162cm, Musée de l'Armée [napoleonbonapart.hit.bg, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Such was the infant Napoleon II — bathed in the love and reflected glory of his father, Napoleon I.

In the near future, it seemed as though anything might be within his reach.

Even his appearance was already endearing. Records describe "thick golden curls that complemented his blue eyes exquisitely," cheeks that were "plump and rosy with flawless pink skin," and a back that was "sturdy and firm." His circumstances were equally auspicious. His father was an emperor and a master of war; his mother, Marie Louise, was the daughter of Franz I of the Austrian Empire — Holy Roman Emperor Franz II. From his father's side he stood to inherit talent and ambition; from his mother's, the blood of the Habsburgs, who held dominion over Central Europe.

Horace Vernet, Eve of the Battle of Borodino: Napoleon I Showing Staff Officers the Portrait of the King of Rome (Napoleon II) Painted by Gérard (François Gérard), 1813, oil on canvas, 34x49.3cm, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts [mbam.qc.ca]

Above all, Napoleon I was fiercely determined to raise his son in his own image. He intended to elevate Napoleon II and carry the Bonaparte era forward. Just as he had done at the baptism, he seized every opportunity to assert his son's presence. The French painter Horace Vernet captured this singular obsession in his work depicting Napoleon I showing staff officers the portrait of the King of Rome — painted by François Gérard — on the eve of the Battle of Borodino. The scene shows Napoleon I, battle imminent, summoning his men to admire a portrait of Napoleon II. His gaze is intent. What the eye catches at first is a naked blond infant, yet every staff officer and aide cranes his neck toward the gilded frame. Here, too, Napoleon I seems to be making a declaration: this child is the future commander you will follow. Obey him and be loyal to him as you are to me.

The little King of Rome already appeared to hold every fortune in a single basket.

It seemed certain that the years between his birth and death would be filled with joy and glory. It seemed that way, at least — until it wasn't.

Years of love and attention

Georges Rouget, Napoleon I Presenting the 'King of Rome' to the Imperial Dignitaries, March 20, 1811, 1812, oil on canvas, 260x220cm, Palace of Versailles [photo.rmn.fr, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Behold — the heir to the empire, the King of Rome!

Nearly three months before the baptism, on March 20, 1811, at 9:20 in the morning, Napoleon I reportedly cried out these words to his assembled dignitaries the moment he laid eyes on the newborn Napoleon II. From that very instant, he could barely contain his elation.

The infant, born at the Tuileries Palace in Paris, measured 50.8 centimeters and weighed about 4 kilograms. Cannon fire rang out across the city. Twenty-one shots signaled the birth of a girl. When the guns continued past the twenty-second round, supporters of Napoleon erupted in cheers: "The crown prince is born at last!"

Alexandre Vincent Sixdeniers, Napoleon I with Napoleon II, c. 1815, engraving [archiv.henrys.de, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

As the baptism and the battlefield scene had foreshadowed, the early childhood of Napoleon II was filled with love and attention.

Napoleon I kissed his son repeatedly and stroked his hair. Even while reading thick reports, he would often hold the boy against his chest. He would get down on all fours to meet his son at eye level, and sometimes played pranks that were almost absurd — deliberately knocking the child over, or smearing food on his face at mealtimes. These were scenes impossible to imagine from the dignified emperor or the battlefield commander. "He played with him ( ... ) like another small child," wrote Baron Claude-François de Méneval, who was close to Napoleon I. The furnishings in Napoleon II's room at the Tuileries were mostly green — the color of the empire. There the boy played with small flags, a toy drum and a toy trumpet. Blood told, however: his most treasured toy was a large horse with a red velvet saddle. He also loved riding a small carriage pulled by two sheep or goats, parading along the garden paths. As he grew a little older, he delighted in dressing in a miniature Guards uniform and acting "just like Papa."

Joseph Franque, Empress Marie Louise Watching Napoleon II Sleep, 1811, oil on canvas, 52x45cm, Palace of Versailles [de.wikipedia, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Napoleon II also showed signs of a capable mind.

He was relatively late to walk — around 18 months — but showed an early interest in reading, writing and memorization. As is often the case with children raised in an atmosphere of love, Napoleon II was cheerful and lively from a young age. His laugh was loud, and he had a habit of gesturing broadly when he spoke. So far, so good. Precisely that far, and no further. No one could easily have imagined that the seemingly unshakeable order of Napoleon I would collapse so swiftly, so completely.

The fall of the Bonaparte era

Adolph Northen, Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow, 1851, oil on canvas, 120x95cm, location unknown [Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Historians still point to several events as causes of Napoleon I's rapid downfall.

Among them was the Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Borodino — a win that left nothing but wounds. This was the battle that followed directly after the scene Horace Vernet had painted, in which Napoleon I showed his officers the portrait of Napoleon II. In September 1812, Napoleon I's French forces met the Russian army at Borodino and won — against what he considered "the last obstacle to world domination." Moscow was now within reach. Yet the French had lost roughly 35,000 men in the battle, with some estimates running as high as 60,000 — comparable to Russian losses of around 40,000 to 50,000. The French did set foot in Moscow afterward, but that was all. They lacked the strength to press further, and the means to find it. The Russian army did not surrender. Bitter cold piled on. Ultimately, Napoleon I had no choice but to order a retreat. His Russian campaign — the gamble of the "god of war" — ended in failure.

The anti-French coalition, led by Britain, Russia and Prussia, saw its opportunity and seized it. They believed this was their last chance to crush the French forces.

The French mounted a final resistance but could not reverse the tide. The result was defeat. In April 1814, Napoleon I abdicated and was informed he would be exiled to the island of Elba.

Albrecht Adam, Napoleon I Leaving the Kremlin, 1840, oil on canvas, 96x128cm, Moscow Kremlin Museums [Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

And what of Napoleon II during all this?

Napoleon I's wife, Marie Louise, had initially intended to hold out in Paris with her son Napoleon II. She envisioned Crown Prince Napoleon II ascending to the throne while she served as regent. Napoleon I had indeed sought to abdicate on the condition that the throne pass to Napoleon II before his exile to Elba. But this was his wish alone — a fantasy. It could never have come to pass. The anti-French coalition would not accept it. To them, the very name Napoleon was a source of dread. They had no intention of leaving any trace or possibility alive. The coalition pressed Napoleon I relentlessly, compelling him to sign a declaration renouncing not only his own rights but those of his descendants. He had no choice but to sign before departing for exile.

With that, there was no longer any reason for Napoleon II to remain in France.

Even the name Napoleon II, just beginning to take shape, was scattered like smoke with a single gesture. To stay would only invite political attack — and in the worst case, the threat of assassination. He left the palace with his mother, Marie Louise, and traveled to Vienna, the city of his maternal grandfather, Emperor Franz I. Sadly, it was the only refuge they had. Napoleon II would never see his father again. He would never return to his homeland of France. That was it — the full extent of everything he had. Napoleon II was barely three years old.

Not 'Napoleon' but 'Franz'

Friedrich von Amerling, Franz I (Holy Roman Emperor Franz II) in the Robes of the Austrian Emperor, 1832, oil on canvas, 260x164cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna [Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Napoleon II's home was now Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna.

It was a magnificent structure bathed in golden yellow. His maternal grandfather, Franz I, embraced Napoleon II with genuine warmth — a grandfather's love, as deep and tender as a parent's. The emperor extended his personal favor, and the boy wanted for nothing in terms of comfort. Yet even in these surroundings, Napoleon II soon showed signs of melancholy. Much of this was due to the influence of Klemens von Metternich, who had emerged as the real power in Austria. Metternich saw Napoleon II as nothing more than a wolf cub sharing blood with the wolf caged on Elba — a potential "second Napoleon" who might one day rise in his own right. Left unchecked, Metternich believed, the boy could become a new rallying point for a France that had barely been brought to heel. The answer, in his view, was to crush the threat before it could sprout.

Thomas Lawrence, Prince Metternich, c. 1815, oil on canvas, 131.2x105cm, Royal Collection [Royal Collection, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

And so Metternich kept Napoleon II under relentless control.

He steered the boy toward speaking only German and arranged his environment so that only German-language books were available. Speaking French or reading French books was viewed with open disapproval. Napoleon II was called "Franz" in Vienna, and Metternich reportedly pushed him to respond only to that name, never to "Napoleon." At the same time, all news and information about Napoleon I was suppressed. There are accounts that Metternich's circle let it be known that Napoleon I was little more than a mercenary warlord who had threatened Europe with his cannons.

A world too cruel for a four-year-old

Charles de Steuben, The Return of Napoleon from Elba, 1818, oil on canvas, 97x128.5cm, private collection [firstempire.0catch.com, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

On Feb. 26, 1815, Napoleon I escaped from Elba.

On March 20, he entered Paris and reclaimed the imperial crown. On June 18, the anti-French coalition — led by Britain and Prussia — met the returning Napoleon I at the Battle of Waterloo. The coalition won, but only just. On June 22, Napoleon abdicated and stepped down once more. The French provisional government, however, took no meaningful steps to bring Napoleon II back as the next emperor.

Napoleon II likely knew little, or only the vaguest outline, of his father's tumultuous Hundred Days. He probably did not know that his own name had again been spoken by his father as emperor — a claim still debated for its legal validity to this day. Nor did he know that Napoleon I, upon his restoration, had tried to summon his wife and child back to him. Marie Louise, who had once clung to Napoleon I, had already intercepted that message on her own. Why? Political circumstances and royal pressure played a part, but so did the fact that she had found another man in the interim. She had fallen in love with Count Neipperg, who had been assigned as both her guardian and escort. Some scholars have suggested this may have been a honeytrap of sorts, orchestrated by Metternich — though nothing has been established as fact.

Portrait of Count Neipperg, Marie Louise's second husband [cloppj, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

In any case, Napoleon II was now cut off from his father, increasingly estranged from his mother, and had nowhere left to return to. He was still only four years old.

Four years old, perhaps — but the world a four-year-old can perceive is far deeper and wider than most would expect.

Napoleon II gradually came to understand the situation he was in. He could sense that even his grandfather Franz I, who always smiled at him, wore a complicated expression whenever their eyes met.

And he was right.

Franz I could not simply love Napoleon II's large, sharp eyes — they reminded him too much of Napoleon I. Franz I had never liked Napoleon I. Son-in-law in name only, the man was in truth no different from an enemy. Sending Marie Louise to marry him had been the result of a one-sided demand — in effect, a capitulation. Before that, Franz I's own armies had suffered near-total defeat at the hands of Napoleon I's French forces. In 1818, Napoleon II was granted the title of Duke of Reichstadt in the Austrian Empire. This, too, could not be seen as recognition befitting his origins. It was, in effect, a measure to suppress his status — a dilution of his identity as Napoleon I's son and heir to the French throne. Meanwhile, the French attendants who had accompanied Napoleon II from Paris were being dismissed one by one.

'He wept as no child could be believed to weep'

Leopold Bucher, Napoleon II, 1832, Malmaison [Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

( ... ) I chose a quiet evening hour.

I witnessed a child who had never seen or known his father

shed more tears than any child could be believed capable of shedding.

These words were written in 1821 by the tutor of Napoleon II, immediately after delivering to him the news of Napoleon I's death.

Napoleon II, then ten years old, burst into tears the moment he heard the news — weeping until he could weep no more, tearing at his own hair. He had no clear memory of his father's face; he had been too young when they parted. Yet he had come to regard his father as a beautiful past, a present worthy of admiration, and a symbol of a future they might one day share. For all of Metternich's efforts to cover his eyes and ears, Napoleon II had managed over the years to piece together what he could about his father. He had reportedly obtained and read the "Memorial of Saint Helena," written by the Count of Las Cases, who had accompanied Napoleon I to Saint Helena, and had been deeply moved by it. The work chronicled Napoleon I's life, journey and philosophy — a genius and a demon, an extraordinary strategist and a ruthless conqueror, above all a master of war with an overwhelming record of victories. For better or worse, Napoleon II had intended to hold his father up as a mirror. But now he was dead — alone, and to no purpose.

Giovanni Battista Borghesi, Marie Louise, 1837, 252x192cm, Galleria Nazionale di Parma [Galleria nazionale di Parma, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

Napoleon II now felt he had no one to lean on and nothing left to hope for.

Perhaps that was why he resolved to build his own strength. His mother, Marie Louise, had by then set up a household with the count in question.

If Empress Joséphine — my father's first wife — had been my mother,

our father would never have been buried on Saint Helena, and I would not be in Vienna.

Our mother ( ... ) is too weak, I think.

She was not worthy of being my father's wife.

Napoleon II had reached the point of saying such things — a sign that he no longer trusted even his mother.

'My birth and my death — that is all there is'

Moritz Michael Daffinger, Napoleon II, 1831, oil on panel, 22x17cm, Belvedere Museum [digital.belvedere.at, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

In the end, Napoleon II could not become Napoleon I.

The compulsion to grow stronger, the obsession with resembling his father, drove him further into a corner. In 1823, Napoleon II entered the Austrian military as a cadet at the age of twelve. He threw himself into rigorous study and training. He showed particular aptitude for mathematics — much as Napoleon I had at the same age.

His body grew rapidly too. He reportedly gained two, three, even four inches — about 10 centimeters — in height in a single year. When he was not drilling or writing, he read. He worked through accounts of his father's campaigns and the records of Julius Caesar, whom he idolized alongside his father. Napoleon II was coming to resemble Napoleon I more and more in his features. In looks alone, he surpassed his father. By around seventeen, he stood 180 centimeters tall. He carried a regal bearing, tinged with the particular melancholy and contemplative air of fallen royalty — in short, he was striking in both appearance and presence. And that was precisely enough to put on guard those enemies who had not forgotten the nightmare of Napoleon I. Franz I and Metternich made sure Napoleon II was never entrusted with any significant assignment that might raise his profile.

Yet Napoleon II's body was deteriorating as surely as his standing. His German-Austrian physician attributed the decline to "rapid growth," but there were likely other causes as well — the stress of anger and frustration, of suffocation and pressure. Napoleon II had begun to suffer from dizziness and unexplained nervous exhaustion.

Johann Nepomuk Ender, Napoleon II on His Deathbed, 1832, private collection [Collection personnelle, Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org]

His physician advised him to avoid strenuous exercise, but Napoleon II would not listen. He was in a hurry. He had to catch up to his father. He had to reclaim the old glory with his own hands, and soon. That may have been all that was driving him. In April 1832, he pushed his ailing body through another long session on horseback. The next day he was diagnosed with pneumonia, and his condition worsened with no sign of recovery. Metternich, watching Napoleon II die, did not lose his characteristic caution. He refused proposals to move the young man to a warmer climate, such as Italy — possibly out of concern that the myth of "the King of Rome's return" might somehow be revived. Napoleon II died on July 22 of that year at Schönbrunn Palace. He was twenty-one. The definitive cause of death is recorded as tuberculosis.

His maternal grandfather, Franz I, wept when he heard the news. And that was all there was to his death.

( ... ) From the cradle he was honored with the name King of Rome.

He was born with outstanding intellectual gifts and a fine physical constitution.

Tall in stature, his appearance shone with the charm of youth ( ... )

and he showed exceptional talent in the study and practice of military science. ( ... )

These words were reportedly composed in the immediate aftermath of Napoleon II's death.

Every line reads as praise — yet the irony is that all of these qualities hastened and drove his end. He did not fill the years between his birth and death with joy and glory. In the days before he died, Napoleon II is said to have spoken these words:

Must I end a life so young, so useless, so without a name?

My birth and my death — that is all there is to my story.

He had been nicknamed "L'Aiglon" — the eaglet — after his father, who was known as the Eagle. And he is still remembered only as the eaglet. He was a child promised flight. That eaglet never spread its wings.

References

Andrew Roberts, Napoleon, Jisik Hyeonjae

Emil Ludwig, Napoleon, Vitamin Book

Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Todd Fisher, The Napoleonic Wars, Planet Media

Napoleon II, Fondation Napoléon

Castelot, Andre., Napoleon's Son, Hamish Hamilton

Oddie, E. M., Napoleon II: King of Rome, Sampson Low, Marston & Co.

yul@heraldcorp.com